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The concept of qì as the single element was developed by ancient cosmologists to explain the nature of the physical universe. It was adopted by medical scholars to explain the physical body and all movement and transformation within it.

Qì in Cosmology

Origins

Natural philosophers of the Spring and Autumn period (770–476 BCE), just before the period in which Confucianism and Daoism were born, apparently lighted on the idea that phenomena such as cloud and mist might explain the material world.

Cloud and mist, which the ancient cosmologists called qì, constantly drifts and changes shape. Sometimes it evaporates and disappears altogether. Sometimes it grows thicker and denser and turns into rain. In low temperatures, vapor turns into snow, and water turns to ice. Thus, one substance has distinct gaseous, liquid, and solid forms.

The Word Qì

In ancient times, qì was written asQi-AncientChar, a pictographic representation of cloud or mist. Very early, the character 米 mǐ, rice, was added to symbolize the cooking rice from which fragrant vapor arose, possibly a reference to ancestral sacrifice. Thus, the traditional form of the character that was used for centuries––and still used in Táiwān and Hongkong—is 氣. When the Chinese simplified their script in the 1950s, the rice element of the character was again removed so that the character is written as 气.

Early medical scholars were aware that mist and fog in the environment could seep into things and make them damp. Heat, cold, and dryness in the environment could penetrate things too. These were regarded as different forms, or perhaps more correctly, different states of qì capable of penetrating matter. Of course, modern physical explanations of these things differ. Cold, for those of us brought up with a scientific worldview, is not a thing in itself but merely the absence of heat. Environmental dryness does not invade things but rather leaches out their water content. Yet, for the Chinese, all these environmental influences were kinds of qì that pervaded things by analogy to the way in which dampness from water particles suspended in the air penetrate absorbent materials such as wood and cloth.

Water heated in a pot produces steam, which is also called qì. When the water boils, the steam is powerful enough to lift the lid. Food cooking in pots gives off not only steam but also the smell of the food being cooked. Thus, power and odor are things closely associated with intangible vapor.

These observations gave ancient thinkers the idea that the whole universe was made of a formless substance qì that could concentrate into solid matter of innumerable different kinds or assume a diffuse active form that could power movement and change. This theory is now called the theory of qì as the single element (气一 元论 qì yī yuán lùn).

Uses of the Word Qì in Contemporary Chinese
Qì is a commonly used word in modern Chinese, referring largely to gaseous substances and abstract concepts.
Gases 气胸 qì xiōng, pneumothorax. 气浪 qì làng (lit., qì wave), blast of an explosion. 气味 qì wèi (lit., qì smell), smell, odor. 排氣 pái qì (lit., discharged qì), exhaust gases as from car engines. Other Phenomena 力气 lì qì, strength. 电气 diàn qì (lit., lightening qì), electricity. 湿气 shī qì dampness. 和氣 hé qì (lit., harmony qì), amiable, agreeable, pleasant 气派 qì pài (lit., qì manner), dignified air.

Connection with Wind

The notion of qì was originally close to that of wind. In some early texts, the terms qì and wind are often used interchangeably. Wind was completely formless, yet immensely powerful. The notion of wind thus fostered the belief that one of the strongest forces in the natural world was activity of a virtually intangible substance, clear qì (air).

Formless Primal Qì as the Source of Everything

From these ideas, early philosophers formulated the principle that what possesses form is born of the formless (有形生于无形 yǒu xíng shēng yú wú xíng). This principle holds that the ultimate and most basic matter of the universe is a formless, intangible entity called qì.

As the basic substance of the whole universe, it is called original qì (元气 yuán qì) or source qì (原气 yuán qì). It is so called because it explains the material basis of the world and all the activity within it, including movement and transformation.

Dense and Diffuse Forms

Original qì can assume different forms. It concentrates into numerous different dense forms that constitute the solid and liquid matter of the world. It can also assume an active state, in which it serves to power the movement and transformation of solid matter.

With this duality of qì in dense and diffuse forms, the early thinkers explained the material world and all the activity occurring in it.

Yīn-Yáng Classification of Qì

In the yīn-yáng doctrine, density and stasis are yīn, while diffuseness and movement are yáng. Accordingly, the substantial and static form of qì can be classed as yīn and the insubstantial and active form of qì as yáng.

Sù Wèn (Chapter 5) states, Clear yáng is heaven; turbid yīn is earth. Earthly qì rises to form clouds; heavenly qì descends in the form of rain. Rain turns into earthly qì, and clouds into heavenly qì. (清阳为天, 浊阴为地, 地气上为云, 天气下为雨, 雨出气地, 云出天气 qīng yáng wéi tiān, zhuó yīn wéi dì, dì qì shàng wéi yún, tiān qì xià wéi yǔ, yǔ chū dì qì, yuán chū tiān qì).

In this cosmological view, humankind exists between heaven and earth. Sù Wèn (Chapter 25) states, Humankind are born of earth and hang upon heaven for their destiny. The united qì of heaven and earth is called humankind (人生于地, 悬命于天, 天地合气, 命之曰人 rén shēng yú dì, xuán mìng yú tiān, tiān dì hé qì, mìng zhī yuē rén). The Nàn Jīng (8th Difficulty) states, Qì is the root of humankind (气者, 人之根本 qì zhě, rén zhī gēn běn yě).

Qì in Medicine

Several centuries before the beginning of the Common Era, philosophers and physicians began to apply the cosmological concept of qì to explain the workings of the body and mechanisms of disease. Since they believed that qì was the basic substance of the material world, they presumed it also to be the basic substance of the body.

They understood the substantial aspect of the body to be the dense form of qì, which they called yīn qì. They accounted for all the activity of the body by the intangible qì, which they often referred to as yáng qì.

They believed that both forms of qì in the body are created out of inhaled air, ingested foodstuffs, and the earlier-heaven essence that individuals receive from their parents.

In their understanding, qì was vital to every aspect of life: Life and death of humankind is entirely dependent on qì. When qì gathers, there is birth; when qì is strong there is health, when qì debilitates there is weakness, and when qì disperses, death occurs (人之生死, 全赖乎气。气聚则生, 气壮则康, 气衰则弱, 气散则死 rén zhī shēng sǐ, quán lài hū qì. Qì jù zé shēng, qì zhuàng zé kāng, qì shuāi zé ruò, qì sàn zé sǐ).

Note that in Chinese medicine, qì may refer to many things other than the yáng qì of the body, notably air, flatulence, types of weather, the nature of medicinals, etc., as discussed under Qì in Cosmology above.

Functions of Qì

Diffuse and highly active yáng qì is understood as an ethereal substance that can pervade solid structures, move substances, and bring about change in matter. It accounts for all activity within the body. Qì moves, contains, transforms, defends, warms, and nourishes.

• Movement: By its dynamic force, qì is active and mobile. It circulates through the channels and network vessels. It propels blood through the vessels. It drives the fluids around the body. It moves food down the digestive tract. It accounts for the bellows-like action of the lungs, the beating of the heart, and opening and closing of the bladder. Movement of qì is weakened when qì is insufficient and is reduced when it stagnates.
• Retention: Also called containment. Qì holds the fluids in the body. It prevents the blood from flowing out of the vessels. It prevents involuntary loss of urine, stool, semen, blood, as well as excessive flow of sweat or menstrual discharge. It holds the internal organs in place. When it fails, there may be urinary incontinence, incessant diarrhea, seminal loss, profuse sweating, spontaneous bleeding, excessive menstrual discharge, prolapse of the rectum or uterus, or miscarriage.
• Transformation: Qì is responsible for all transformations in the body. It powers the process of digestion. It produces qì, blood, and the various forms of fluid in the body. The term qì transformation (气化 qì huà) refers to all the transformative effects of qì, although this term often specifically refers to the functions of the kidney and bladder with regard to urine. When this function is impaired, a variety of signs may be observed.
• Defense: Qì wards off external evils (pathogens from outside the body) such as wind, cold, summerheat, dampness, dryness, fire (heat), and epidemic qì. When this function breaks down, the likelihood of external contractions increases, resulting in susceptibility to common cold and flu, which are usually attributed to wind-cold or wind-heat.
• Warming: Qì generates heat; it keeps the body warm. When this function is impaired, there are cold signs. Major sources of warmth in the body are traditionally labeled as fires: the sovereign fire, the ministerial fire, and the life-gate fire. However, these are all considered to be concentrated forms of qì. Fire is yáng in nature, and in diagnosis, superabundance or insufficiency of the warming function is usually described as superabundance or insufficiency of yáng rather than of qì.
• Nourishment: Some texts say qì provides nourishment to the body because a particular form of qì in the body called provisioning qì is a component of the blood.

Flow of Qì

Yáng qì is understood to be a substance, but it is one so ethereal that it can move through solid and liquid matter. Being able to pervade solid and liquid, it reaches all parts of the body, propelling the blood and fluids and powering the activity of all organs and body parts. Its movement is described as flow. Using a mechanical analogy, the ability of qì to move freely and perform its functions effectively is called qì dynamic (气机 qì jī), and disturbances in it are sometimes called inhibited qì dynamic.

Each organ has its own qì, which not only drives its own activity but can also reach beyond its own physical confines. Lung qì, for example, not only drives respiration, but it can also reach out to the exterior of the body and down through the trunk. The qì paradigm made early Chinese medical scholars focus on the bigger picture of things happening in various parts of the body. They noted a correlation between the health of the lung and susceptibility to conditions like colds and flu characterized by heat effusion (i.e., fever) and aversion to cold in the exterior of the body occurring with cough and sore throat. The connection between exterior and lung signs was explained by the flow of lung qì to the exterior.

Yáng qì does not require any tubular structure to guide it, it nevertheless tends to move along certain trajectories called the channels and network vessels. It may be assumed that the discovery of the pathways of qì flow rested on observations that acupuncture stimuli applied at certain points on superficial sections of channels could produce therapeutic effects in organs and body parts traversed by the same channel pathway.

Symptoms of Qì Disease Patterns

Since thorough-going discussions of basic theory require knowledge of symptoms and their clinical significance, it is important to recap the main symptoms encountered so far. Qì vacuity: Fatigue and lack of strength; faint low voice; faint breathing; poor appetite; poor digestion; tender-soft tongue. Qì stagnation: Dull or mild pain of unfixed location; distension and fullness (when there is stoppage, there is pain.). Qì fall: Sagging sensations within the trunk; incessant diarrhea with prolapse of the rectum; prolapse of the uterus. Qì counterflow: Affecting the stomach, it causes nausea, vomiting, hiccup, belching, and acid upwelling.

Abnormalities of Yáng Qì

The main abnormalities of yáng qì are insufficiency, qì fall, qì desertion, qì stagnation, qì counterflow, and qì desertion. These abnormalities in general highlight the conception of qì as matter and specifically as a fluid-like substance.

Insufficiency of qì: As a disease pattern, insufficiency of qì is called qì vacuity. It manifests in qì failing to perform any of its above-mentioned functions. When insufficiency of lung qì affects respiratory power, there may be faint breathing and faint low voice. When the transformative function of the spleen (digestive system) qì is affected, there may be reduced eating, fatigue and lack of strength, and sloppy stool. When the retention function is affected, there can be urinary incontinence, incessant diarrhea, seminal loss, profuse sweating, spontaneous bleeding, excessive menstrual discharge, prolapse of the rectum or uterus, or miscarriage. Weakness of the defensive function manifests in susceptibility to common cold and flu.

Note that while many writers speak of deficiency, we prefer the term vacuity. The Chinese term is 虚 xū, which connotes emptiness and weakness.

A critical kind of qì vacuity is referred to as qì desertion (气脱 qì tu ō) or outward desertion of yáng qì (阳气外脱 yáng qì wài tu ō). This is characterized by faint breathing, a bright-white facial complexion, a faint weak pulse, dripping cold sweat, and clouded spirit (partial or total loss of consciousness). This concept highlights how qì is understood as an ethereal substance that can escape from the body.

The traditional notion that qì can escape from the body is seen in acupuncture, where the practitioner can press on the insertion point after removal of the needle to supplement qì to treat qì vacuity or waggle the needle to widen the hole in order to drain qì stagnation. This suggests, once again, that Chinese physicians of the past believed qì to be an ethereal substance that could leave the body through the hole in the skin created by the insertion of a needle.

Qì stagnation: A major pathology of qì is stagnation, i.e., sluggish movement. The Chinese term for stagnation is 滞 zhì, which has a water radical on the left-hand side, indicating that it describes a phenomenon associated with water. Stagnation describes failure of water to move in a current or stream, preventing it from propelling things in it and on it and causing it to become stale and unhealthy. Stagnant areas in rivers hamper transportation of goods, affecting the human economy. When qì fails to move properly in the body, morbid conditions such as distension or fullness and dull pain or pain of unfixed location occur, according to the principle that when there is stoppage, there is pain. Qì stagnation can result from insufficiency of qì, from the obstructive effect of food, dampness, phlegm or static blood. Anger and frustration give rise to depressed liver qì, which is one form of qì stagnation.

Qì counterflow: When qì moves counter to its normal direction this is called counterflow―again an image that comes from water. Counterflow is often associated with stagnation, because when qì stagnates, it can back up and even move in the opposite direction. The most obvious example of this ascendant counterflow of stomach qì. Stomach qì normally bears downward, carrying with it the contents of the stomach. When, for numerous possible reasons, the downward flow is inhibited, stomach qì flows counterflow in an upward direction, giving rise to nausea, vomiting, hiccup, belching, or acid upwelling.

Qì Counterflow or Rebellious Qì
The Chinese 逆 nì means going against the flow in the context of rivers and streams. Hence, we call it counterflow. Some translators call it rebellious qì, expressing the idea in a social metaphor of insubordination. It is true that the Chinese word逆 nì is used metaphorically in compound terms to denote rebelliousness, but this is not the sense intended in the Chinese medical context.

The Explanatory Power of Qì

Qì provides an alternative to scientific explanations of many different phenomena. A few examples are given below.

Blood circulation

• Chinese medicine explains the movement of blood simply by the action of qì. When qì fails to move, this is called qì stagnation. Qì stagnation can cause blood stasis, which is blood failing to move. Many circulatory conditions can be effectively treated with medicinals described as rectifying qì and dispelling stasis, such as dān shēn (丹參Salviae Miltiorrhizae Radix, salvia).
• Biomedicine accounts for the movement of blood by the pumping action of the heart muscles that constantly contract and relax in time with movement of valves in the blood vessels that ensure that the blood moves in one direction only.

Peristalsis

• Chinese medicine understands food to be propelled down the digestive tract by the downward movement of stomach qì. When food fails to move down the digestive tract normally, Chinese medicine calls this gastrointestinal qì stagnation, which is effectively treated with qì-rectifying medicinals, such as chén pí (陈皮 Citri Reticulatae Pericarpium, tangerine peel).
• Modern biomedicine explains the movement of food through the digestive tract in terms of peristalsis, that is, the coordinated contraction and relaxation of the smooth muscles surrounding the intestinal tract, which continually squeeze the contents in the direction of the anus.

Vomiting

• According to Chinese medicine, vomiting occurs when stomach qì, which normally flows downward, flows upward instead. Many pathologies of the stomach involve stomach qì ascending counterflow, which can manifest in vomiting, belching or hiccup. Vomiting is treated with medicinals that are described as downbearing counterflow and checking vomiting, such as bàn xià (半夏 Pinelliae Rhizoma, pinellia).
• Biomedicine explains vomiting in terms of spasm in the muscles of the digestive tract.

Pain

• In Chinese medicine, pain is considered as a blockage of qì: When there is stoppage, there is pain. Pain is treated by rectifying qì and relieving pain, using medicinals such as yán hú suǒ (延胡索 Corydalis Rhizoma, corydalis).
• Biomedicine explains pain as warning by the nervous system that the body is damaged and needs to be protected.

Loss of substances

• Chinese medicine explains the escape of substances from the body in many cases by insufficiency of qì’s retentive or containment action. Loss of fluids through sweating or excessive urination, excessive drooling, excessive vaginal discharge, and abnormal escape of semen, or bleeding, for reasons other than trauma is often attributed to qì failing in its retentive action. The loss of a fetus in miscarriage may also be attributed to qì retention failure. All such phenomena may be explained by other phenomena depending on the accompanying symptoms. Thus, for example, sweating in patients with a high fever is explained by the presence of heat or the presence of other evils, while in very weak patients with no high fever, it is explained in terms of insufficiency of qì.
• Biomedicine explains the loss of substances in biomedicine in numerous and complex ways. For example, it understands severe sweating in shock patients to be a consequence of hyperactivity of the sympathetic nervous system in its efforts to maintain blood pressure to ensure adequate circulation to the brain.

Invading pathogens

• Chinese medicine also recognizes the role of external evils (pathogens from outside the body), but understands these to be environmental qì (wind, cold, dampness) entering the body.
• Biomedicine explains many diseases by the invasion of microorganisms into the body.

Effects of emotions

• Chinese medicine understands emotions to resonate with qì. For example, emotional depression arising from frustration, anger, worry or other negative emotions can cause or be caused or exacerbated by depression of liver qì, which in turn affects the smooth flow of blood. Premenstrual syndrome often presents a classic example of how physical and emotional conditions are explained through depressed liver qì.
• Biomedicine explains connections between emotions and physiological functions and their disturbances by hormones and activity of the nervous system.

Classification of Qì

Qì as the principle of activity in the body is differently labeled depending on its location and function. Examples:

• The qì that moves around the body through the channels, and their smaller branches called network vessels is called channel and network vessel qì.
• The qì that powers the activity of the organs is called bowel and visceral qì. Each bowel and viscus has its own qì: heart qì, lung qì, stomach qì, etc.
• The qì that defends the body against invading evils is called defense qì.

These and other types of qì, which will be introduced later, all understood as subcategories of qì.

Difficulties Understanding the Concept of Qì

Qì accounts for a whole host of phenomena in Chinese medicine. The concept of qì is of immense importance in virtually every facet of the subject. Despite this, modern students in China and outside China, find the concept of qì hard to understand, since it cannot be framed in modern scientific terms. For this reason, they tend to reformulate the concept of qì in ways they see as being compatible with the scientific world view, such as energy, activity, or signals.

These attempts to make sense of qì tend to limit the concept of qì to the yáng qì of the body that powers physiological activity and distort it by relating it to modern models of physiological activity. Qì was originally conceived of as matter in various degrees of density and was widely used to explain different phenomena other than physiological qì.

Qì Originally Understood as Matter

In the original cosmological conception, qì is a substance of differing densities. Qì in its densest form is solid matter, like stone, metal, wood, flesh, and bone. In increasing degrees of diffuseness, it passes through the liquid and gaseous stage to include notions like clouds, air, and sun rays. In its most diffuse form, it is an ever-changing, intangible stuff that transcends the limitations of the scientific notion of matter or substance, as it cannot be objectively detected, isolated, or measured by current scientific methods. It is the life-giving source of all change in the world and the foundation of health and strength in the human body, somewhat like the early Greek concept of pneuma.

People of today who have been brought up with the modern scientific worldview have difficulty understanding that the diffuse, highly active substance qì that powers activity within the body is not matter in the modern sense, on the one hand because it cannot be isolated from the body and on the other it is ascribed the power to pervade solid matter. In the modern view of the physical world based on the duality of energy and matter, qì, if not matter, must be energy, or else activity or function. These conceptions will be discussed below.

Not Just the Body’s Yáng Qì

Since qì was traditionally considered as the single element of the whole universe, it is not surprising how many different phenomena, both inside and outside the body, are called qì. Western students’ understanding qì is often hampered by the fact that the term is often translated by other terms (gas, breath, energy, weather) depending on the context.

Below are examples of things labeled as qì in Chinese, but often not translated as such in English.

Qì is matter: In accordance with its philosophical roots, qì is understood to be matter. Chinese texts speak of yīn qì, which denotes all yīn aspects of the body, including the solid and liquid matter. Bile, for example, is described as a surplus of liver qì.

Qì is air or gas: Let us recall that qì originally denoted the environmental phenomenon of cloud or mist. This meaning was extended to denote the air or atmosphere in the environment, which is called great qì (大气 dà qì) or clear qì (清气 qīng qì). In addition to this, the term qì is also used to denote gases in general. In the body, it therefore denotes breath or gas in the digestive tract. For example, belching of putrid qì means belching of putrid gas; passing of qì means passing of flatus. Qì in these senses is often translated as air, gas, or flatus.

Qì is breath or breathing: Not only is air passing through the lungs called qì; the action of breathing is also sometimes called qì in Chinese. For example, rough breathing is 气粗 qì cū, and rapid breathing is 气急 qì jí. Here, qì refers to the activity of the lung rather than the air passing in and out.

Qì is weather: From the meaning of air, the term qì is further extended to denote different types of weather or environmental conditions, summarized under the term heavenly qì as the Chinese equivalent of the English weather. In this sense, qì can be combined with qualifying attributes to refer to specific types of weather. Thus, for example, cold qì can refer to cold weather, and damp qì means damp weather or dampness in the environment.

Uses of the Term Qìin Medicine

Matter 阴气 yīn qì, yīn qì Gases 屎气 shǐ qì, fecal qì, flatus, flatulence 嗳气 ài qì, belching 大气 dà qì, great qì (air, atmosphere) 清气 qīng qì, clear qì (air; the diffuse active qì in the body) Odors 臭气 chòu qì, fetid odor 口气 kǒu qì (lit, mouth qì), mouth odor Breath/Breathing 气促 qì cù (lit, hasty qì), hasty breathing 气急 qì jí, rapid breathing 气粗 qì cū, rough breathing 气短 qì duǎn (lit, qì short), shortness of breath 少气 shǎo qì, (lit, little qì), scantness of breath 脚气 jiǎo qì, leg qì (beriberi) 奔豚气 bēn tún qì, running piglet qì (a disease characterized by an upsurge of qì from the abdomen to the throat) 梅核气 méi hé qì, plum-pit qì (globus hystericus) Yáng Qì of the Body 气虚 qì xū, qì vacuity 气脱 qì tuō, qì desertion (loss of qì from the body) 气陷 qì xiàn, qì fall 气滞 qì zhì, qì stagnation

气逆 qì nì, qì counterflow 肝气郁 gān qì yù, depressed liver qì (liver qì depression) 肺气不足 fèi qì bù zú, insufficiency of lung qì 卫气不固 wèi qì bù gù, insecurity of defense qì 清气不升 qīng qì bù shēng, clear qì failing to bear upward Environmental Conditions and Evils in the Body 天气 tiān qì, weather 火气 huǒ qì, fire 湿气 shī qì, damp qì 邪气 xié qì, evil qì 恶气 è qì, malign qì (an evil that gives rise to a severe disease) Things in Their Active Aspect 正气 zhèng qì, right qi (the power of qì, blood, yīn-yáng, the organs to keep the body healthy) 气味 qì wèi, qì and flavor (nature and flavor or medicinals) 四气 sì qì, four qì (four natures of medicinals) 湿气 shī qì, damp qì, dampness 水气 shuǐ qì, water qì (water pervading the flesh) 火气 huǒ qì, fire qì Diseases 疝气 shàn qì, mounting qì (usually referring to inguinal hernia)

Qì is the warm /hot or cold /cool nature of medicinals: In a medical and dietetic context, the meaning of qì is further extended to refer to the cooling or warming nature of a medicinal or dietary ingredient as its qì. For example, as everyone knows, dried ginger (干姜 gān jiāng, Zingiberis Rhizoma) adds a hot, spicy flavor to food. Because of that hotness, the qì of dried ginger is said to be hot. Qì in this context is also called nature (性 xìng) in Chinese. Since many translators prefer the term nature in this context, the notion that the warm/hot or cold/cool nature of medicinals is understood by the Chinese as qì tends to be lost in transmission.

Qì is matter or a phenomenon in its active aspect: The term qì can also denote things or phenomena in their active aspect. Here are some examples:

• Right qì (正气 zhèng qì) refers to the forces of the body that maintain health and resist disease. It is not a specific form of yáng qì, because it includes solid tissue, fluids, and blood, which are yīn in nature. These things are referred to as right qì because when they are healthy, they exert a health-maintaining influence.
• Water qì refers to excessive fluid in the body that is pervasive and has a damaging influence on health.
• Leg qì is the name Chinese medicine gives to beriberi, a disease associated with malnutrition. It is characterized by numbness, pain, and swelling of the legs. In the later stages, it can manifest in signs such as heart palpitation, panting, nausea and vomiting, and in severe cases deranged speech—a condition called leg qì surging into the heart. Thus, the disease affecting the legs is understood to be a qì that can invade the upper part of the body.
• Plum-pit qì is what is called globus hystericus in biomedicine. It is the sensation of a lump in the throat that arises when the liver’s action of free coursing is impaired. It is so called because it is like a plum pit stuck in the throat; but it is a phantom phenomenon, and hence referred to as qì.
• Spirit qì (神气shén qì) is mental vitality.

Modern Explanations of Yáng Qì

Modern writers have tried to explain the yáng qì of the body in terms of modern scientific concepts, including energy, signals, or activity/function. While these efforts are understandable, they each only apply to qì in specific contexts and do not enable the modern reader to understand the traditional notion of qì. They can give the false impression that a familiar Western notion suffices to explain what qì is.

Qì as energy: Many Westerners understand the term qì as only referring to the diffuse, active qì that powers bodily activity (yáng qì). Since in modern scientific terms, power is provided by energy, they naturally equate qì with the concept of energy.

In some contexts, this appears to make sense: when qì vacuity is understood as lack of energy and experience qì-supplementing acupuncture treatments as boosting energy, no problems of understanding arise. However, the qì as energy interpretation does not help students to understand what early physicians meant by yīn qì or bile as the surplus of liver qì.

The term energy in Western physics means the power to do work, as distinct from matter. Chinese medicine has no such dichotomy, since qì in any form is understood to be matter. If the substantial nature of qì is ignored, many phenomena explained in terms of qì do not make sense. For example, qì as flatus and breath are not forms of energy in any scientific sense.

The Western concept of energy can perhaps be used cautiously to help explain the active and insubstantial aspect of qì. Nevertheless, this does not mean that the two notions can be equated.

Qì as neurobiological signals: In Chinese and Western literature, qì has also been equated with neurobiological signals. A large amount of research has shown that the effects of needling points on various parts of the body activate the nervous system to produce hormones and neurotransmitters, which produce therapeutic effects. One example of this is the ability of acupuncture to stimulate production of pain-relieving endorphins in the body. Such findings explain stimulation of specific points of the body in scientific terms. They provide only a partial substantiation for the channel system as charted by early Chinese medical scholars. They do not provide any proof of the existence of a single substance qì, even as limited to the concept of the body’s yáng qì.

Qì as activity or function: In modern Chinese textbooks designed for Chinese students who share the world view of modern science, qì is explained as substance that in many instances can be thought of as activity or function. Stressing the active aspect of qì by calling it function seems to come closer to the original Chinese understanding of qì, but as an exclusive definition of qì, it is as misleading as energy. Qì is not the function or activity, but rather what powers the activity or makes the function operant.

Qì-gōng

Cultivating and controlling the power of qi is important in Chinese martial arts and in particular qì-gōng.

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